Hardy–Littlewood's binary Goldbach asymptotic conjecture

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Let r2′(N)r_2'(N) denote the number of representations of NN as a sum of two primes, and let S(N)\mathfrak{S}(N) be the singular series

S(N)=∏p(1+cp(N)(p−1)2)=∏p∤N(1−1(p−1)2)∏p∣N(1+1p−1).\mathfrak{S}(N)=\prod_p\left(1+\frac{c_p(N)}{(p-1)^2}\right)=\prod_{p\nmid N}\left(1-\frac{1}{(p-1)^2}\right)\prod_{p\mid N}\left(1+\frac{1}{p-1}\right).

For even integers NN, let r2(N)r_2(N) denote the corresponding von Mangoldt-weighted representation count. Hardy–Littlewood's conjecture. As N→∞N\to\infty through even integers,

r2(N)∼S(N)N,r_2(N)\sim \mathfrak{S}(N)N,

Equivalently,

r2′(N)∼S(N)N(log⁡N)2.r_2'(N)\sim \mathfrak{S}(N)\frac{N}{(\log N)^2}.

This is the quantitative form of the binary Goldbach conjecture: it predicts not only that every sufficiently large even integer has a representation as the sum of two primes, but also the precise asymptotic number of such representations. The conjecture remains unresolved.

References

Primary source

Lasse Grimmelt and Gautami Bhowmik, “The exceptional set of the Goldbach problem”, arXiv:2607.27282 (2026).

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